Mechanisms of diseases caused by;
1. Climate change2. Toxicity of chemical and physical agents
3. Environmental pollution
4. Effects of alcohol
5. Effects of tobacco
6. Injury caused by therapeutic drugs & drug abuse
Although
their are pathogens i.e., viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms that cause various
diseases in human beings, but not all the time the
disease is caused by pathogens. Some of the very common factors other than pathogens that contribute
to some diseases are explained in the upcoming discussion.
1. 1. Diseases caused by climate change
The direct and indirect effects
of climate change on human health are becoming increasingly
obvious. Direct effects include exposure to extreme
weather events such as heatwaves. Indirect effects include disruption
to economic and social activity, which can impact health.
Climate change affects many of the social and
environmental determinants of health – clean air, safe drinking water,
sufficient food, and secure shelter.
Some diseases are worsened with climate change. It exacerbates existing
inequalities and challenges in managing infectious diseases. Some of the
diseases that are Infectious diseases
whose transmission can be impacted by climate change include dengue
fever, malaria, leishmaniasis, Ebola, Tuberculosis and, other
respiratory diseases. There is no direct evidence that the spread
of COVID-19 is worsened or is caused by climate change.
Climate change will
potentially lead to both higher pollen concentrations and longer pollen
seasons, causing more people to suffer more health effects from pollen and
other allergens. Pollen exposure can trigger various allergic reactions,
including symptoms of hay fever. Hay fever, also known as allergic
rhinitis, occurs when allergens like pollen enter your body and your immune
system mistakenly identifies them as a threat. If you have allergic rhinitis,
your body then responds to the allergen by releasing chemicals that can cause
symptoms in the nose.
Allergic conjunctivitis is the inflammation of
the lining of the eye (conjunctiva) due to exposure to allergens like those in
pollen. Allergic conjunctivitis is found in up to 30% of the general population
and as many as 7 out of 10 patients with allergic rhinitis.
People
with respiratory illnesses like asthma may be more sensitive to pollen.
Exposure to pollen has been linked to asthma attacks and increases in hospital
admissions for respiratory illness.
Climate change will potentially lead
to shifts in precipitation patterns, warmer seasonal air temperatures, and more
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere that also affect health
to a greater extent.
Climate change
can also aid in behavior change and mental health, one may feel better, work
with full capacity in normal weather as compared to the one who is suffered
from cold or hot temperature or weather.
2. 2. Toxicity
of physical and chemical agents
A toxic agent is
anything that can produce an adverse biological effect. It may be chemical,
physical, or biological in form. Toxic agents may
be chemical (such as cyanide), physical
(such as radiation), and biological (such as snake venom). There are various
diseases caused by chemical and physical toxic agents. Although there is a separate
subject for the study of toxic substances in the medical field called
toxicology some of the major toxic substances are explained here below with
their mechanisms of action.
a. a. Chemical toxic agents
Hazardous chemicals can act directly on the skin, resulting
in local irritation or an allergic reaction, or they may be absorbed through
the skin, ingested, or inhaled. In the workplace ingestion of toxic chemicals is usually accidental and most commonly
results from handling contaminated food, drink, or cigarettes. Substances that
occur as gases, vapors, aerosols, and dusts are the most difficult to control,
and most hazardous chemicals are therefore absorbed through the respiratory tract. If inhaled, airborne contaminants act as
irritants to the respiratory tract or as systemic poisons. Toxicity in such cases depends on the
contaminant’s concentration, particle size, and physicochemical properties,
particularly its solubility in body fluids. An individual’s reaction to any
hazard depends primarily on the length, pattern, and concentration of exposure
but is also affected by such factors as age, sex, ethnic group, genetic background, nutritional status,
coexistent disease, concomitant exposure to other toxic agents,
lifestyle, and history of previous exposure to the agent in question.
The wide range of both naturally occurring and synthetic chemical compounds that can give rise to adverse health effects can be roughly organized into
four major categories: gases, metals, organic compounds, and dusts.
·
Gases
Gases may act as
local irritants to inflame mucous surfaces. Common examples include sulfur
dioxide, chlorine, and fluorine, which have pungent odors and can severely
irritate the eyes and the respiratory tract. Some gases, such as nitrogen
oxides and phosgene, are much more insidious. Victims may be unaware of the
danger of exposure because the immediate effects of these gases may be mild and
overlooked. Several hours after exposure, however, breathlessness and fatal
cardiorespiratory failure due to pulmonary edema (collection of fluid in the
lungs) may develop.
Gases that
interfere with oxygen supply to the tissues are known as asphyxiants and are of
two principal types. Simple asphyxiants are physiologically inert gases that
act by diluting atmospheric oxygen. If the concentration of such gases is high
enough, hypoxia (deficiency of oxygen reaching the tissues of the body)
results. Victims of mild hypoxia may appear to be intoxicated and may even
resist rescue attempts. Common examples of simple asphyxiants are methane and
carbon dioxide.
In contrast to
simple asphyxiants, chemical asphyxiants, such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen
sulfide, are highly reactive. They cause a chemical action that either prevents
the blood from transporting oxygen to the tissues or interferes with
oxygenation in the tissues. For example, carbon monoxide, a frequently
encountered gas produced by incomplete combustion, combines with hemoglobin in
the blood and reduces its oxygen-carrying capacity. In low concentrations,
carbon monoxide poisoning can cause symptoms of fatigue, headache, nausea, and
vomiting, but heavy exposure leads to coma and death. It is especially
dangerous because it is both colorless and odorless. Hydrogen sulfide, however,
can be recognized by its characteristic smell, suggestive of rotten eggs. It is
produced when sulfur compounds decompose and act by inhibiting the respiratory
enzyme cytochrome oxidase, thus giving rise to severe tissue hypoxia. In
addition to its asphyxiant properties, hydrogen sulfide also acts as an
irritant to the eyes and mucous membranes.
·
Metals
Metals and their
compounds are among the poisons most encountered in the home and workplace.
Even metals essential for life can be toxic if they are present in excessive
amounts. Iron, for example, is an essential element and is sometimes given
therapeutically; if taken in overdose, however, it can be lethal.
Mercury
poisoning, one of the classic occupational diseases, is a representative
example of metal poisoning.
Ingestion of
mercury salts such as mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) leads to nausea,
vomiting, and bloody diarrhea. Kidney damage resulting in death may follow in
extreme cases. Inhalation or absorption through the skin of mercury vapor
causes salivation, loosening of the teeth, and tremor; it also affects the
higher centers of the brain, resulting in irritability, loss of memory,
depression, anxiety, and other personality changes. Poisoning with organic
mercury compounds (used in fungicides and pesticides) results in permanent
neurological damage and can be fatal.
Other hazardous
metals commonly encountered in the industry include arsenic, beryllium,
cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, nickel, and thallium. Some are
carcinogenic, including certain compounds of nickel (linked to lung and nasal
cancer), chromium (lung cancer), and arsenic (lung and skin cancer).
·
Organic
compounds
The organic
compounds that pose the greatest occupational hazards are various aromatic,
aliphatic, and halogenated hydrocarbons and the organophosphates, carbamates,
organochlorine compounds, and bipyridylium compounds used as pesticides.
The
organophosphates and the generally less toxic carbamates exert their effects by
inhibiting cholinesterase, an enzyme that prevents stimulation from
becoming too intense or prolonged by destroying the acetylcholine involved in
the transmission of impulses in the autonomic nervous system. Cholinesterase
inhibitors allow the accumulation of acetylcholine, causing symptoms related to
parasympathetic overactivity, such as chest tightness, wheezing, blurring of
vision, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and in severe cases respiratory
paralysis. Atropine and certain oximes counteract their effects.
Paraquat and diquat, the bipyridylium compounds, are deadly if ingested. Skin contact or inhalation of a concentrate of paraquat can cause fatal lung damage. Because no specific antidote is known, treatment consists of minimizing the body’s absorption of the poison.
The
organochlorine compounds, such as DDT, are being progressively phased out of
use. Because they are fat-soluble and very stable, they accumulate and remain
in the fatty tissues of the body for prolonged periods. Symptoms of poisoning
include nausea, irritability, weakness, muscle tremors, and convulsions. There
is no specific antidote.
Hydrocarbons are
used industrially in the derivation of other compounds and solvents, degreasing
agents, refrigerants, fire extinguishers, dry cleaning agents, paint removers,
and other products. Many are volatile and can be absorbed by inhalation; some
are fat-soluble and can be readily absorbed following spills on the skin.
Gasoline, fuel oils,
and other petroleum products are common examples of aliphatic hydrocarbons. If
they are ingested or inhaled, dizziness, weakness, nausea, or irritation of the
lungs may follow. In very severe cases victims may become unconscious or
experience convulsions. Direct contact causes skin irritation and dryness.
Prolonged exposure to certain petroleum oils may result in skin cancer.
The aromatic
hydrocarbon benzene provides the basis for the synthesis of many other organic
compounds. It is rapidly absorbed following inhalation or skin contact.
Symptoms from mild exposure include dizziness, headache, euphoria, confusion,
and nausea. Long-term exposure may be followed by bone marrow depression,
anemia, spontaneous bleeding, and leukemia. Several aromatic hydrocarbons are
known to be carcinogens. Particularly hazardous are naphthylamine, benzidine,
and 4-amino diphenyl, which cause bladder cancer. Previously used in the
synthetic dye, synthetic rubber, cable-making, and chemical industries, they
have been banned in several countries.
Many chlorinated
hydrocarbons, including chloroform and trichloroethylene, act as depressants on
the central nervous system, producing anesthetic or narcotic effects that may
be abused. Occupational exposure to many solvents may act synergistically with
alcohol, resulting in more damage than either agent could produce on its own.
Some halogenated hydrocarbons cause extensive disorders in addition to their
common narcotic effect. Inhaling or ingesting the solvent carbon tetrachloride,
for example, leads to liver damage; and exposure to vinyl chloride causes
Raynaud’s phenomenon (spasms in the small arteries that cause the extremities
to become pale and cold, as well as painful), necrosis of the small bones of
the hand, liver damage, and a rare, highly malignant tumor of the liver.
·
Dusts
The inhalation of
a variety of dust is responsible for several lung and respiratory disorders,
whose symptoms and severity depend on the composition and size of the dust
particle, the amount of dust inhaled, and the length of exposure. Lung diseases
are known as pneumoconiosis result when certain inhaled mineral dust is
deposited in the lungs, where they cause a chronic fibrotic reaction that leads
to decreasing capacity for exercise and increasing breathlessness, cough, and
respiratory difficulty.
Asbestos is the
general term for several fibrous silicates that are used primarily in various
fireproofing, insulation, and cement products. In addition to pulmonary
fibrosis, inhaling asbestos fibers has also been shown to cause lung and other
cancers.
Prolonged
exposure to certain plant and animal dust can cause asthma, even in people
without a predisposition for allergies. Specific hazards include dust from
flour, grains, and wood and wood products.
b. b. Physical toxic agents
Some physical agents contribute to the diseases, some of them are; Temperature, Pressure, vibration, mechanical stresses, and some radiations.
·
Temperature
When working in a
hot environment, humans maintain normal body temperature by perspiring and by
increasing the blood flow to the surface of the body. The large amounts of
water and salt lost in perspiration then need to be replaced. In the past,
miners who perspired profusely and drank water to relieve their thirst
experienced intense muscular pain—a condition known as miner’s cramps because
of restoring their water but not their salt balance. When salt in the requisite
amount was added to their drinks, workers no longer developed miner’s cramps. Heat
exhaustion is characterized by thirst, fatigue, giddiness, and often muscle
cramps; fainting can also occur. Heatstroke, a more serious and sometimes
lethal condition, results when prolonged exposure to heat and high humidity
prevents efficient perspiration (by preventing evaporation of sweat), causing
the body temperature to rise above 106° F (41° C) and the skin to feel hot and
dry. If victims are not quickly cooled down, coma, convulsions, and death can
follow. To prevent heat exhaustion or heatstroke, workers unaccustomed to high
temperatures should allow adequate time (ranging from days to weeks) for their
bodies to become acclimatized before performing strenuous physical tasks.
Heat rash occurs when the
skin's sweat glands are blocked, and the sweat produced cannot get to the
surface of the skin to evaporate. This causes inflammation that results in a
rash. Common symptoms of heat rash include red bumps on the skin and a prickly
or itchy feeling to the skin.
Work in cold
environments may also have serious adverse effects. Tissue damage that does
not involve freezing can cause inflammatory swelling known as chilblains. Frostbite,
or the freezing of tissue, can lead to gangrene and the loss of fingers or
toes. If exposure is prolonged and conditions (such as wet or tight clothing)
encourage heat loss, hypothermia, a critical fall in body temperature, may
result. When body temperature falls below 95° F (35° C), physiological
processes are slowed, consciousness is impaired, and coma, cardiorespiratory
failure, and death may ensue.
Hypothermia is another condition due to extreme cold temperature; the
body begins to lose heat faster than it can be produced. Prolonged exposure to
cold will eventually use up your body’s stored energy. The result is
hypothermia or abnormally low body temperature. A body temperature that is too
low affects the brain, making the victim unable to think clearly or move well.
This makes hypothermia particularly dangerous because a person may not know it
is happening and will not be able to do anything about it.
· Atmospheric pressure
Decompression
sickness (caisson disease) can result from exposure to high or low atmospheric
pressure. Under increased atmospheric pressure (such as that experienced by
deep-sea divers or tunnel workers), fat-soluble nitrogen gas dissolves in the
body fluids and tissues. During decompression, the gas comes out of solution
and, if decompression is rapid, forms bubbles in the tissues. These bubbles
cause pains in the limbs (known as the bends), breathlessness, angina, headache,
dizziness, collapse, coma, and in some cases death. Similarly, the gases in
solution in the body tissues under normal atmospheric pressure form bubble when
pressure rapidly decreases, as when aviators in unpressurized aircraft ascend
to high altitudes too quickly. Emergency treatment of decompression sickness
consists of rapid recompression in a compression chamber with gradual
subsequent decompression. The condition can be prevented by allowing sufficient
decompression time for the excess nitrogen gas to be expelled naturally.
·
Vibration
Whole-body
vibration is experienced in surface and air transport, with motion sickness its
most familiar effect. A more serious disorder, known as Raynaud’s syndrome or
vibration white finger (VWF), can result from the extensive use of vibratory
hand tools, especially in cold weather. The condition is seen most frequently
among workers who handle chain saws, grinders, pneumatic drills, hammers, and
chisels. Forestry workers in cold climates are particularly at risk. Initial
signs of VWF are tingling and numbness of the fingers, followed by intermittent
blanching; redness and pain occur in the recovery stage. In a minority of cases,
the tissues, bones, and joints affected by the vibration may develop
abnormalities; even gangrene may develop. VWF can be prevented by using
properly designed tools, avoiding prolonged use of vibrating tools, and keeping
the hands warm in cold weather.
·
Other
mechanical stresses
Muscle cramps
often afflict workers engaged in heavy manual labor as well as typists,
pianists, and others who frequently use rapid, repetitive movements of the hand
or forearm. Tenosynovitis, a condition in which the sheath enclosing a tendon
to the wrist or one of the fingers becomes inflamed, causing pain and temporary
disability, can also result from prolonged repetitive movement. When the
movement involves the rotation of the forearm, the extensor tendon attached to
the point of the elbow becomes inflamed, a condition commonly known as tennis
elbow.
·
Ionizing
radiation
Ionizing
radiation damages or destroys body tissues by breaking down the molecules in
the tissues into positively or negatively charged particles called ions.
Radiation that can cause ionization may be electromagnetic (X rays and gamma
rays) or particulate (radiation of electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha
particles, and other subatomic particles) and has many uses in industry,
medicine, and scientific research.
Ionizing
radiation injury is in general dose-dependent. Whole-body exposure to doses
more than 1,000 rads results in acute radiation syndrome and is usually fatal.
Doses more than 3,000 rads produce cerebral edema (brain swelling) within a
matter of minutes, and death within days. Lesser doses cause acute
gastrointestinal symptoms, such as severe vomiting and diarrhea, followed by a
week or so of apparent well-being before the development of the third toxic
phase, which is characterized by fever, further gastrointestinal symptoms,
ulceration of the mouth, and throat, hemorrhages, and hair loss. There is an
immediate drop in the white-cell elements of the blood, affecting the
lymphocytes first and then the granulocytes and platelets, with a slower
decline in the red cells. If death does not occur, these symptoms may last for
many months before slow recovery begins.
Delayed effects
of radiation exposure include the development of leukemia and other cancers.
Examples include the skin cancers that killed many of the pioneering scientists
who worked with X rays and radioactive elements; the lung cancer common among
miners of radioactive ores; and the bone cancer and aplastic anemia that women
who painted clock dials with a luminous mixture containing radium and
mesothorium developed because of ingesting small amounts of paint when they
licked their paintbrushes to form a point.
·
Nonionizing
radiation
Nonionizing forms
of radiation include electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency,
infrared, visible light, and ultraviolet ranges. Exposure to radiation in the
radio frequency range occurs in the telecommunications industry and the use of
microwaves. Microwaves produce localized heating of tissues that may be intense
and dangerous. Various other disorders, mainly of a subjective nature, have
been reported in workers exposed to this frequency range. Infrared radiation
can be felt as heat and is commonly used in industry in drying or baking
processes. Prolonged exposure to the radiation can result in severe damage to
the skin and especially to the lens of the eye, where cataracts may be
produced. Working under poor lighting conditions can adversely affect worker
efficiency and well-being and may even cause temporary physical disorders, such
as headaches or dizziness. The proper lighting should provide adequate, uniform
illumination and appropriate contrast and color, without any flickering or
glare. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun or such industrial
operations as welding or glassblowing causes erythema of the skin (a condition
familiarly known as sunburn), skin cancer, and inflammation of the conjunctiva
and cornea. Pigmentation offers natural protection against sunburn, and
clothing and glass can also be used as effective shields against ultraviolet
radiation. Lasers emit intense infrared, visible, or ultraviolet radiation of a
single frequency that is used in surgery, for scientific research, and cutting,
welding, and drilling in industry. Exposure to these beams can burn the skin
and cause severe damage to the eye.
3. 3. Environmental
pollution
The
addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such
as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than it
can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless
form. The major kinds of pollution, usually classified by the environment, are
air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution. Modern society is also
concerned about specific types of pollutants, such as noise pollution, light
pollution, and plastic pollution. Pollution of all kinds can have negative
effects on the environment and wildlife and especially on human health
and well-being. All types of pollution cause various human diseases, some of
them are explained as under.
Most Common Diseases Caused by Air Pollution
Diseases
caused by air pollutants kill and hospitalize millions of people every year.
Estimates by the World Health Organization imply that one out of every eight
deaths in the world is due to conditions associated with air pollution.
The
most common diseases caused by air pollution include ischemic heart disease,
stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, and acute
lower respiratory infections in children.
a. Air Pollutants
That Cause Disease
The
criteria for air pollutants include Lead, Ozone, Particulate Matter, Nitrogen
Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and Sulfur Dioxide.
Exposure to high levels
of lead may cause anemia, weakness, and kidney and brain damage. Very
high lead exposure can cause death. Lead can cross the placental barrier, which
means pregnant women who are exposed to lead also expose their unborn children.
Lead can damage a developing baby's nervous system.
Particulate
matter pollution is one of the main sources of the
various diseases associated with air pollution. Particulate matter refers to
tiny particles, both liquids, and solids, which exist in the air. The particles
are so small they can penetrate both the lungs and bloodstream and do
considerable damage. Particulate matter can come from a variety of sources, but
the combustion of fossil fuels is one of the primary contributors to
particulate matter air pollution.
Ozone
is a beneficial chemical when it is in the
upper atmosphere, as it protects the Earth from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation.
When ozone is at ground level it is a toxic pollutant and one of the key
ingredients of smog. Ozone is often formed by the interaction of Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOCs) with sunlight and heat.
Sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are colorless gases
released by the combustion of fossil fuels, or by industrial processes. Both
chemicals can damage the lungs and airway, leading to the exacerbation of
cardiovascular diseases in those with pre-existing conditions. Nitrogen dioxide
is also thought to be one of the causes of asthma.
Carbon
monoxide is a colorless and odorless gas that comes
from the incomplete burning of fossil fuels,” says Wood. “Frequently released
by cars and industrial facilities, carbon monoxide prevents people from getting
oxygen, so it can lead to confusion, nausea, and even death rather quickly.
b. Diseases caused by water pollution
Contaminated
water can harbor bacteria, such as those responsible for diarrhea, cholera,
dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis A, and polio. According to the UN, every year,
approximately 297,000 children under five die from diseases linked to poor
sanitation, poor hygiene, or unsafe drinking water. Chemical pollutants, such
as pesticides, fertilizers, and heavy metals can cause serious health problems
if present in the drinking water and ingested.
In the same way, if toxic chemicals
are present in the soil and that soil is consumed for agriculture purpose, can
lead to various dangerous diseases as discussed above.
4. 4. Effects
of Alcohol on body
Alcohol
produces short and long-term adverse effects in the body, the diseases caused
by alcohol are in hundreds and maybe acute to chronic. Long-Term
Health Risks. Over time, excessive alcohol use can lead to the development of
chronic diseases and other serious problems including High blood pressure,
heart disease, stroke, liver disease, and digestive problems. Cancer of the
breast, mouth, throat, esophagus, voice box, liver, colon, and rectum.
Digestive and endocrine glands damage
Drinking too much alcohol can cause abnormal
activation of digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas. Buildup of these
enzymes can lead to inflammation known as pancreatitis. Pancreatitis can become
a long-term condition and cause serious complications.
Inflammatory damage
The liver is an organ which helps break down and remove harmful substances from your body, including alcohol. Long-term alcohol use interferes with this process. It also increases your risk for chronic liver inflammation and liver disease. The scarring caused by this inflammation is known as cirrhosis. The formation of scar tissue destroys the liver. As the liver becomes increasingly damaged, it has a harder time removing toxic substances from your body.
Sugar levels
The pancreas helps regulate your body’s insulin use
and response to glucose. When your pancreas and liver aren’t functioning
properly, you run the risk of experiencing low blood sugar, or hypoglycemia. A
damaged pancreas may also prevent the body from producing enough insulin to
utilize sugar. This can lead to hyperglycemia, or too much sugar in the blood.
If
your body can’t manage and balance your blood sugar levels, you may experience
greater complications and side effects related to diabetes.
Central
nervous system
One of the easiest ways to understand alcohol’s impact
on your body is by understanding how it affects your central nervous system.
Slurred speech is one of the first signs you’ve had too much to drink. Alcohol
can reduce communication between your brain and your body. This makes
coordination more difficult.
As
alcohol causes more damage to your central nervous system, experience of numbness
and tingling sensations in feet and hands. Drinking also makes it difficult for
brain to create long-term memories. It also reduces your ability to think
clearly and make rational choices. Over time, frontal lobe damage can occur.
This area of the brain is responsible for emotional control, short-term memory,
and judgement, in addition to other vital roles.
Chronic
and severe alcohol abuse can also cause permanent brain damage. This can lead
to Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a brain disorder that affects memory.
Dependency
Some
people who drink heavily may develop a physical and emotional dependency on
alcohol. Alcohol withdrawal can be difficult and life-threatening.
Symptoms
of alcohol withdrawal include:
- · anxiety
- · nervousness
- · nausea
- · tremors
- · high blood pressure
- · irregular heartbeat
- · heavy sweating
- · Seizures, hallucinations, and delirium may occur in severe cases of withdrawal.
Circulatory system
Alcohol can affect your heart and lungs. People who are chronic drinkers of alcohol have a higher risk of heart-related issues than people who do not drink. Women who drink are more likely to develop heart disease than men who drink.
Circulatory system complications include:
- · high blood pressure
- · irregular heartbeat
- · difficulty pumping blood through the body
- · stroke
- · heart attack
- · heart disease
- · heart failure
Difficulty absorbing vitamins and minerals from food
can cause anemia. This is a condition where you have a low red blood cell
count. One of the biggest symptoms of anemia is fatigue.
Sexual and reproductive health
Men who drink too much are more likely to experience
erectile dysfunction. Heavy drinking can also prevent sex hormone production
and lower your libido.
Women who drink too much may stop menstruating. That
puts them at a greater risk for infertility. Women who drink heavily during
pregnancy have a higher risk of premature delivery, miscarriage, or stillbirth.
Women who drink alcohol while pregnant put their unborn child at risk. Fetal alcohol syndrome disorders (FASD) are a serious concern. Other conditions include:
- · learning difficulties
- · long-term health issues
- · increased emotional problems
- · physical development abnormalities
Skeletal and muscle systems
Long-term alcohol use may prevent your body from
keeping your bones strong. This habit may cause thinner bones and increase your
risk for fractures if you fall. And factures may heal more slowly. Drinking
alcohol may also lead to muscle weakness, cramping, and eventually atrophy.
Immune system
Drinking heavily reduces your body’s natural immune
system. This makes it more difficult for your body to fight off invading germs
and viruses.
People who drink heavily over a long period of time
are also more likely to develop pneumonia or tuberculosis than the general
population. About 10 percent trusted source of all tuberculosis cases worldwide
can be tied to alcohol consumption. Drinking alcohol also increases risk for
several types of cancer, including mouth, breast, and colon.
5. 5. Effects of tobacco on health
Smoking leads to disease and disability and harms nearly every organ of the body. Smoking causes cancer, heart disease, stroke, lung diseases, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
Smoking and Death
Cigarette smoking causes more than 480,000 deaths
each year in the United States. This is nearly one in five deaths.
Smoking causes more deaths each year than the
following causes combined:
- ·
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
- ·
Illegal drug use
- ·
Alcohol use
- ·
Motor vehicle injuries
- ·
Firearm-related incidents
More than 10 times as many U.S. citizens have
died prematurely from cigarette smoking than have died in all the wars fought
by the United States. Smoking causes about 90% (or 9 out of 10) of all lung
cancer deaths. More women die from lung cancer each year than from breast
cancer. Smoking causes about 80% (or 8 out of 10) of all deaths from chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Cigarette smoking increases risk for
death from all causes in men and women.
Smoking and Increased Health Risks
Smokers are more likely than nonsmokers to develop
heart disease, stroke, and lung cancer.
Estimates show smoking increases the risk:
- · For coronary heart disease by 2 to 4 times
- · For stroke by 2 to 4 times
- · Of men developing lung cancer by 25 times
- · Of women developing lung cancer by 25.7 times
Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease
- Smokers are at greater risk for diseases that affect the heart and blood vessels (cardiovascular disease).
- · Smoking causes stroke and coronary heart disease, which are among the leading causes of death in the United States.
- · Even people who smoke fewer than five cigarettes a day can have early signs of cardiovascular disease.
- · Smoking damages blood vessels and can make them thicken and grow narrower.
·
This makes your heartbeat faster and your blood pressure go up. Clots
can also form.
A stroke occurs when:
- · A clot blocks the blood flow to part of your brain;
- · A blood vessel in or around your brain bursts.
- · Blockages caused by smoking can also reduce blood flow to your legs and skin.
Smoking and Respiratory Disease
- Smoking can cause lung disease by damaging your airways and the small air sacs (alveoli) found in your lungs.
- · Lung diseases caused by smoking include COPD, which includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
- · Cigarette smoking causes most cases of lung cancer.
- · If you have asthma, tobacco smoke can trigger an attack or make an attack worse.
·
Smokers are 12 to 13 times more likely to die from COPD than
nonsmokers.
Smoking and Cancer
Smoking can cause cancer almost anywhere in your body:
Mouth and throat (oral cavity and pharynx); Esophagus, voice box (larynx);
Lung, bronchus, and trachea; Acute myeloid leukemia; Liver; Kidney and renal
pelvis; Stomach; Uterine cervix; Pancreas; Urinary bladder; Colon and rectum
Smoking can cause cancer almost anywhere in your body:
- · Bladder
- · Blood (acute myeloid leukemia)
- · Cervix
- · Colon and rectum (colorectal)
- · Esophagus
- · Kidney and ureter
- · Larynx
- · Liver
- · Oropharynx (includes parts of the throat, tongue, soft palate, and the tonsils)
- · Pancreas
- · Stomach
- · Trachea, bronchus, and lung
· Smoking also increases the risk of dying from cancer and other diseases in cancer patients and survivors.
6. 6. Injury by therapeutic drugs & Drug abuse
a. Drug-induced liver injury
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is an injury of the
liver that may occur when you take certain medicines. i.e., Non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID).
Other drugs that can lead to liver injury include:
- · Amiodarone
- · Anabolic steroids
- · Birth control pills
- · Chlorpromazine
- · Erythromycin
- · Halothane (a type of anesthesia)
- · Methyldopa
- · Isoniazid
- · Methotrexate
- · Statins
- · Sulfa drugs
- · Tetracyclines
- · Amoxicillin-clavulanate
- · Some anti-seizure medicines
Mechanism of Drug Induced Liver Injury (DILI)
Similarly, to other chemicals such as alcohol and solvents, drugs can injure the liver. A body of evidence suggests that mechanisms for drug induced liver injury (DILI) may follow a three-step cascade of events: drugs or their metabolites cause cell stress directly or through reactive oxygen species (ROS) during drug oxidation via cytochrome P450, impair mitochondrial functions, trigger immune reactions, and impair mitochondrial functions that would initiate apoptosis or necrosis leading to cell death. Clinically, toxicity DILI commonly refers to the idiosyncratic toxicity that occurs at therapeutic doses, affects a few susceptible individuals, and is not predictable. Conversely, intrinsic toxicity is dose dependent and thus predictable in individuals given an overdose of certain drugs such as acetaminophen.
b. Drug Abuse
Drug abuse is the use of illegal drugs or the use of prescription or over-the-counter medications in ways other than recommended or intended. It also includes intentional inhalation of household or industrial chemicals for their mind-altering effects. Tobacco use and problem drinking are sometimes included in the definition of drug abuse. Chemical abuse and substance abuse are terms sometimes used interchangeably with the term drug abuse, or they may be used to refer to a combination of drug abuse and tobacco use or problem drinking.
Many drugs that are abused are also addictive; they cause cravings and a continued desire to use them despite negative consequences. Drug abuse can start in childhood and continue in adulthood. Studies of high school students indicate that approximately 42% drink alcohol, 21% use marijuana, and 3% use cocaine. Approximately 12% have used inhalants, and 20% have abused prescription drugs.
Addiction vs. Abuse and Tolerance
Drug abuse is when you use legal or illegal substances in ways you shouldn’t. You might take more than the regular dose of pills or use someone else’s prescription. You may abuse drugs to feel good, ease stress, or avoid reality. But usually, you’re able to change your unhealthy habits or stop using altogether.
Addiction is when you can’t stop. Not when it puts your health in danger. Not when it causes financial, emotional, and other problems for you or your loved ones. That urge to get and use drugs can fill up every minute of the day, even if you want to quit.
Addiction also is different from physical dependence or tolerance. In cases of physical dependence, withdrawal symptoms happen when you suddenly stop a substance. Tolerance happens when a dose of a substance becomes less effective over time.
When you use opioids for pain for a long time, for example, you may develop tolerance and even physical dependence. This doesn’t mean you’re addicted. In general, when narcotics are used under proper medical supervision, addiction happens in only a small percentage of people.
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